Our Stories

The African Story: Approaches to Sexual and Reproductive Health in Pre-Colonial Times

By Cohort 5 of the Advocacy for Reproductive Justice in Africa Short course

The African continent, with its rich cultural tapestry, has long had sophisticated and diverse approaches to sexual and reproductive health (SRH). Before the influence of colonial powers, African societies developed and maintained intricate systems of knowledge and practice that addressed SRH needs. These systems were grounded in cultural norms, spiritual beliefs, and community-based support networks, which ensured the health and social cohesion of communities.
This narrative explores various regions of Africa, providing specific examples and references to illustrate the continent’s indigenous practices in SRH. Before the arrival of colonialists, African communities managed and approached sexual reproductive health (SRH) through a combination of traditional practices, cultural norms, and community support systems. Here are some key aspects of how African communities addressed SRH:

1. Traditional Healing Practices:
   African societies relied heavily on traditional healers who possessed knowledge of herbal remedies, rituals, and spiritual practices related to SRH. These healers played a crucial role in providing healthcare and addressing reproductive health issues within their communities.

2. Cultural Norms and Rituals:
   Cultural norms surrounding sexuality, fertility, childbirth, and marriage varied across different African communities. Rituals and ceremonies were often conducted to mark significant life events such as puberty, marriage, and childbirth. These ceremonies often included teachings and practices related to reproductive health and well-being.

3. Community Support Networks:
   African societies valued community support and solidarity, especially concerning matters of health and family. Women received support from other members of the community during pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum care. Experienced elders, midwives, and female relatives provided guidance and assistance during these critical periods

4. Herbal Medicine and Natural Remedies:
   Traditional African medicine relied on the use of medicinal plants and natural remedies to treat various health conditions, including those related to reproductive health. Herbalists and traditional
   healers possessed knowledge of plants with purported medicinal properties for managing fertility, menstrual disorders, childbirth complications, and sexually transmitted infections.

5. Oral Traditions and Knowledge Transmission:
   Knowledge related to SRH was often passed down through oral traditions, storytelling, and practical experience. Elders and experienced community members played a significant role in transmitting this knowledge to younger generations, ensuring the continuity of cultural practices and healthcare traditions.

6. Gender Roles and Social Dynamics:
   Gender roles and social dynamics influenced how SRH was managed within African communities. Women often held knowledge and expertise in areas such as childbirth, midwifery, and herbal
   medicine, while men played supportive roles in providing resources and assistance. Overall, African communities approached SRH through a holistic lens, integrating spiritual, cultural, and practical aspects of health and well-being. These traditional practices and community-based systems played a vital role in addressing reproductive health needs before the advent of colonialism.

Specific experiences from the different African regions:
The East African Story: Sexual and Reproductive Health Before Colonial Times East African societies had comprehensive and culturally integrated approaches to sexual and reproductive health (SRH). These practices were effective in addressing the needs of individuals and communities, reflecting a deep understanding of health and well-being. Communities such as the Maasai, Kikuyu, and Baganda had well-established systems to manage SRH through rites of passage, traditional medicine, and community education.

a. The Maasai of Kenya and Tanzania
The Maasai community, known for their semi-nomadic lifestyle, had structured practices that supported SRH.

>Enkipaata and Emuratare Ceremonies:
o Enkipaata: This was an initiation rite for boys, preparing them for adulthood by teaching them about their roles, responsibilities, and sexual health.
o Emuratare: Although female circumcision (FGM) is now widely criticized, it traditionally marked a girl’s transition to womanhood, accompanied by education on sexual health, fertility, and maternal responsibilities. These ceremonies were crucial for social cohesion and the transmission of knowledge.

>Role of Elders and Herbalists:
o Elders provided critical education on sexual responsibility and reproductive health.
o Herbalists used local plants to treat reproductive issues and support maternal health, ensuring both mother and child received adequate care.

Best Practices:
> Community Involvement: The inclusion of elders and herbalists ensured a holistic approach to SRH.
> Education through Rites: Ceremonial education effectively prepared youths for adult responsibilities.

The Kikuyu of Kenya
The Kikuyu community developed sophisticated SRH practices rooted in their cultural and spiritual beliefs.

1. Initiation Rites:
   o Irua: Both boys and girls underwent initiation rites, marking their transition into adulthood. These rites included comprehensive education on sexual health, fertility, and social roles.
2. Traditional Birth Attendants:
   o Experienced elder women provided prenatal and postnatal care, assisted in childbirth, and treated reproductive health issues using herbal medicine.
3. Medicinal Knowledge:
   o The Kikuyu had extensive knowledge of medicinal plants for contraception, enhancing fertility, and treating reproductive conditions. This knowledge was passed down through generations.

Best Practices:
 Intergenerational Knowledge Transfer: Effective transmission of medicinal knowledge and SRH practices through generations.
 Community-Based Care: Use of traditional birth attendants ensured personalized and culturally appropriate care.

The Baganda of Uganda

The Baganda community had a well-defined system for managing SRH, integrated into their cultural and social fabric.

1. Puberty Rites and Education:
   o Ssenga System: Aunts (ssengas) educated their nieces on sexual health, personal hygiene, and reproductive responsibilities, ensuring young women were wellprepared for marriage and motherhood.
2. Traditional Healers and Midwives:
   o Traditional healers and midwives provided essential services, including fertility treatments, childbirth assistance, and postpartum care using herbal remedies.
3. Cultural Practices:
   o Specific practices to enhance fertility and ensure healthy pregnancies included dietary guidelines and the use of medicinal plants.

Best Practices:
 Mentorship System: The ssenga system provided personalized and practical education on SRH.
 Holistic Health Care: Integration of traditional medicine and spiritual practices ensured comprehensive care.

The history of sexual and reproductive health and rights (SRHR) in Tanzania during the pre-colonial period and its impact, as well as a comparison to the recent years after the pre-colonial period: Pre-colonial period: – During the pre-colonial era, SRHR issues were largely influenced by traditional beliefs, customs, and practices of the various ethnic groups in the Tanzanian region. Sexual and reproductive health knowledge, practices, and behaviors were often integrated into cultural norms, rituals, and community life. – Many communities had traditional methods and practices related to family planning, maternal health, and the management of sexual and reproductive health issues. – These traditional practices and beliefs often emphasized the importance of fertility, childbearing, and the role of women in society. – However, practices such as female genital mutilation/cutting (FGM/C) and early/forced marriage were also common in some communities.

Impact: – The traditional SRHR practices and beliefs had a significant influence on the sexual and reproductive health of individuals and communities in pre-colonial Tanzania. – These practices shaped attitudes, behaviors, and access to SRHR services, often with negative consequences, particularly for women and girls. – The emphasis on fertility and childbearing reinforced gender norms and power dynamics that limited women’s autonomy and decision-making in SRHR matters. – Harmful practices like FGM/C and early/forced marriage had long-lasting physical, psychological, and social impacts on women and girls. Recent years (post-colonial period): – In the post-colonial period, Tanzania has undergone significant changes in the SRHR landscape, influenced by various factors, including: – Increased access to modern healthcare services and SRHR information – Efforts to address harmful traditional practices through legal and policy reforms – Advocacy and awareness campaigns to promote women’s empowerment and gender equality – Integration of SRHR into national health policies and strategies – However, challenges still remain, such as: – Persistent cultural and traditional beliefs that hinder the realization of SRHR Limited access to SRHR services, especially in rural and underserved areas – Socio-economic inequalities that disproportionately affect the SRHR of marginalized groups – Ongoing efforts to further strengthen the SRHR system and ensure universal access to comprehensive SRHR services.
In summary, the pre-colonial period in Tanzania was characterized by traditional SRHR practices and beliefs that had a significant impact on the sexual and reproductive health of individuals and communities. The post-colonial period has seen progress in addressing these challenges, but there is still work to be done to fully realize SRHR for all Tanzanians.

In pre-colonial East Africa, societies like the Maasai, Kikuyu, and Baganda had well-established and effective approaches to sexual and reproductive health. These practices were deeply rooted in cultural traditions and involved community participation, intergenerational knowledge transfer, and the use of indigenous medicine. The integration of education, ceremonial rites, and traditional healthcare ensured that SRH needs were met comprehensively, reflecting the sophistication and effectiveness of these traditional systems. Through these best practices, East African communities maintained robust and culturally appropriate SRH frameworks that supported the well-being of their members.

The West African Story: Sexual and Reproductive Health Before Colonial Times
West African societies had comprehensive systems for managing sexual and reproductive health (SRH). These systems were deeply embedded in cultural, social, and spiritual practices.
Communities such as the Yoruba, Akan, and Fulani had effective methods for addressing SRH needs through initiation rites, traditional medicine, and community education.
The Yoruba of Nigeria
The Yoruba community, known for their rich cultural heritage, had structured practices supporting SRH.

1. Initiation Rites:
   o Eto Igbeyawo: Marriage ceremonies included comprehensive education on sexual health, fertility, and family planning. Young women were educated by older women on marital responsibilities and reproductive health.
2. Traditional Birth Attendants and Herbalists:
   o Traditional birth attendants (TBAs) played a crucial role in maternal health. They provided prenatal care, assisted in childbirth, and offered postpartum care.
   o Herbalists used a wide range of local plants to treat reproductive issues, enhance fertility, and support maternal health.

Best Practices:
 Community Education: Educating young women through initiation rites ensured they were well prepared for reproductive responsibilities.
 Holistic Care: The involvement of TBAs and herbalists ensured comprehensive and culturally appropriate care.

The Akan of Ghana
The Akan community had a well-developed system for managing SRH, reflecting their intricate social structure

1. Puberty Rites:
   o Bragoro: This ceremony marked the transition of girls into womanhood. It included education on sexual health, fertility, and maternal responsibilities. Elder women guided the young girls, providing them with essential knowledge and skills.
2. Traditional Healers and Herbalists:
   o Traditional healers used herbal medicine to treat reproductive health issues, support childbirth, and enhance fertility. Their knowledge was extensive and passed down through generations.
3. Family and Community Support:
   o The family and community played active roles in educating young people about SRH. Grandmothers, mothers, and aunts were primary sources of knowledge for young girls.

Best Practices:
 Intergenerational Knowledge Transfer: Effective transmission of knowledge through family and community ensured young women were well-prepared for adulthood.
 Comprehensive Healthcare: Traditional healers provided personalized care, ensuring maternal and reproductive health needs were met.
The Fulani of West Africa
The Fulani community, spread across several West African countries, had unique practices for managing SRH, integrated into their pastoral lifestyle.

1. Rites of Passage:
   o Sharo: A public ceremony marking a boy’s transition to adulthood. Although primarily for boys, it included education on sexual responsibilities and family roles, indirectly affecting SRH knowledge and practices.
2. Role of Traditional Healers:
   o Traditional healers, including midwives, provided essential reproductive health services. They used medicinal plants for fertility, childbirth assistance, and postpartum care.
3. Community-Based Education:
   o Education on SRH was often conducted through informal means, such as storytelling, community gatherings, and mentorship by elders.

Best Practices:
 Community Engagement: Education through community gatherings and storytelling ensured widespread dissemination of SRH knowledge.
 Personalized Care: Traditional healers provided tailored healthcare services, addressing specific needs of individuals and families.

Conclusion
In pre-colonial West Africa, societies like the Yoruba, Akan, and Fulani had effective and culturally integrated approaches to sexual and reproductive health. These practices involved community participation, intergenerational knowledge transfer, and the use of traditional medicine. By incorporating education, ceremonial rites, and traditional healthcare, these communities maintained robust SRH frameworks that addressed the needs of their members. The best practices from these societies included community education, holistic care, and personalized healthcare services, ensuring that SRH needs were met comprehensively and effectively.

The North African Story: Sexual and Reproductive Health Before Colonial Times
Before the advent of colonialism, North African societies had well-established systems to address sexual and reproductive health (SRH). These practices were deeply influenced by the region’s cultural, social, and religious contexts. Communities such as the Berbers, Egyptians, and Nubians had distinct approaches to managing SRH through traditional medicine, community education, and religious teachings.

The Ancient Egyptians
The ancient Egyptians are renowned for their advanced medical knowledge, which included sophisticated understanding of SRH.

1. Medical Papyruses:
   o Ebers Papyrus (c. 1550 BCE): This ancient document contains extensive information on contraception, fertility treatments, and pregnancy care. It includes prescriptions for contraceptive methods such as acacia gum mixed with honey and dates, used as a vaginal suppository to prevent conception.
   o Kahun Gynecological Papyrus (c. 1800 BCE): Focused on gynecological diseases, fertility, and pregnancy, it provided treatments for various reproductive health issues using herbs and natural remedies.
2. Role of Midwives and Healers:
   o Midwives played a crucial role in childbirth and postpartum care. They were knowledgeable in using medicinal plants and techniques to ensure safe deliveries and address complications.

Best Practices:
 Comprehensive Medical Texts: Detailed medical papyruses provided structured knowledge and treatments for various SRH issues.
 Use of Natural Contraceptives: Effective natural contraceptives and fertility treatments showcased advanced understanding and application of herbal medicine.

The Berbers of North Africa
The Berber communities, indigenous to North Africa, had rich cultural traditions that included practices to manage SRH.

1. Traditional Healing and Herbal Medicine:
   o Berber healers, often women, used a wide variety of medicinal plants to address reproductive health issues. They prepared remedies for menstrual irregularities, infertility, and complications during childbirth.
   o Herbs like rue (Ruta graveolens) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) were commonly used for their medicinal properties.
2. Cultural Practices and Education:
   o Women’s knowledge of SRH was passed down through generations, often in the form of oral traditions and practices. Elders educated young women on menstrual health, fertility, and pregnancy care.

Best Practices:
 Herbal Remedies: The extensive use of herbal medicine provided effective treatments for reproductive health issues.
 Intergenerational Knowledge Transfer: Oral traditions ensured the preservation and dissemination of SRH knowledge across generations.
The Nubians of Ancient Sudan
Nubian societies, located in what is modern-day Sudan, also had notable practices concerning SRH.

1. Religious and Cultural Practices:
   o The Nubians integrated religious beliefs into their SRH practices. Fertility and childbirth were often associated with deities, and rituals were performed to ensure healthy pregnancies and births.
   o Statues and amulets of deities like Isis, the goddess of fertility and motherhood, were commonly used to protect women during pregnancy and childbirth.
2. Traditional Birth Attendants:
   o Like other African societies, Nubian midwives were central to reproductive healthcare. They provided prenatal care, assisted in deliveries, and offered postpartum support using traditional knowledge and techniques

Best Practices:
 Religious Integration: The incorporation of religious rituals and amulets provided spiritual comfort and protection for women.
 Skilled Midwifery: Experienced midwives ensured safe childbirth and maternal care, reducing risks associated with delivery.

Conclusion
In pre-colonial North Africa, societies such as the Egyptians, Berbers, and Nubians had sophisticated systems to manage sexual and reproductive health. These systems were deeply rooted in their cultural, social, and religious contexts. Best practices included the use of detailed medical texts and natural contraceptives in ancient Egypt, extensive herbal medicine and intergenerational knowledge transfer among the Berbers, and the integration of religious rituals and skilled midwifery among the Nubians. These practices ensured comprehensive SRH care and contributed to the well-being of women in these communities.

The South African Story: Sexual Reproductive Health Before Colonial Times
Archaeological Evidence

1. San and Khoi Communities:
   o Archaeological evidence suggests that indigenous San and Khoi communities in southern Africa had intimate knowledge of medicinal plants and herbs. These communities likely used various plants for medicinal purposes, including those related to reproductive health.
   Oral Traditions and Cultural Practices
2. Role of Traditional Healers:
   o Traditional healers, known as sangomas or inyangas, played a central role in healthcare within indigenous communities. It is likely that they possessed knowledge and remedies related to reproductive health issues.
3. Rites of Passage:
   o Many indigenous cultures in South Africa had rites of passage that marked transitions into adulthood. These ceremonies often included teachings on sexuality, reproductive health, and family responsibilities.

Best Practices

1. Herbal Medicine:
   o Indigenous communities in South Africa had extensive knowledge of medicinal plants. It is believed that they used herbs and natural remedies to address various reproductive health concerns, such as menstrual irregularities, fertility, and childbirth.
2. Community Support:
   o Indigenous societies placed a strong emphasis on community support and solidarity. Women likely received assistance and guidance from other members of the community, including midwives and female elders, during pregnancy and childbirth.

THE SRHR IN PRE-COLONIAL TIMES SOUTHERN AFRICA AND ZIMBABWE
By Tafadzwa Dombodzvuku, in Zimbabwe
The Sexual and Reproductive health and rights (SRHR) in Africa is a topic that has gained much traction over the years due to the fact there is an emergence of a cocktail of advocators who have taken the bull by its horns and are working tirelessly to make sure the (SRHR) issues are talked about in a big way to influence their impact in Africa.

It is to a greater extent to acknowledge that even during the pre-colonial times in Africa, the issues of SRHR were always there but remained an adult prerogative in the sense that elders were the ones who facilitated and undertook to educate and or promote them.

As many African countries gained independence, things began to change as more people including the young and the old started to campaign, advocate and spearhead the issue of SRHR in Africa and this piece will look at the issues of SRHR in pre-colonial times in Southern Africa in general and Zimbabwe in particular.

Zimbabwe like many other countries in Africa have strong belief in cultural activities, traditional practises, and community values and these three components formed much of the SRHR in precolonial times. Those who lived years before us, our ancestors were believed to play a key role in the issues related to fertility, childbirth, and sexual health. Ancestors were the owners of fertility and if a woman was barren it was attributed to her ancestors that they were not in agreement that a woman must carry a child inside her womb and much belief was placed on the ancestors and their practises that needed to be carried out to mitigate this catastrophe.
During childbirth there were rites that were performed to welcome the child into the family and make sure that the woman did not sleep with other men from outside and that the child rightfully belongs to the family welcoming him.
Men were given some concoctions for their sexual health to make stronger their backs and become more fertile as well as being taught on how to please a woman in bed, some cultures would also circumcise young men a practice that was carried out to advance penis hygiene a move that was regarded to counter sexually transmitted disease and on the other hand women of age would spend time with their aunts being taught on how to make a man happy in the bedroom as well as how to take care of a child.

Traditional healers also played a big part in giving guidance on sexual health, fertility and childbirth. To the women who failed to conceive, the intervention of traditional healers was required so that she can be given herbs and other medicine so that her uterus can accept to carry a foetus and bore a child, during childbirth traditional healers were also present to meet and receive the new born so that they can perform the traditional rites that were necessary in the event the child did not cry at birth or refused to suckle from her mother’s breast. As mentioned above, young people who had come of age will go for initiation ceremonies were boys were circumcised and women also underwent genital mutilation. During these initiation ceremonies, boys and girls will be taught matters to do with SRHR issues in preparation for adulthood and parenting. At these initiation ceremonies getting and managing relationships was also taught in preparation for adulthood. Furthermore, responsibility was also taught in that as a man you must be responsible for your family and also this goes the same for the girl child as she was taught to take care of the baby and the husband.

“It took a whole village to raise a child”-this is a maxim that is common in many countries in Southern Africa, Zimbabwe included. The importance of the statement is that a whole village plays a very big role in raising a child and there is an element of community support that a whole village did to raise a child.

Herbal remedies and traditional medicines were used to address sexual health issues, elders knew of these medicines and they played a big role in curing ailments of all sexual transmitted diseases and infections (STDs) and (STIs) amongst other ailments. The older generation played a very big role as they were the fountains of wisdom, the doyens of culture preservation and they were revered for their wisdom and guidance on SRHR issues. The elders acted as libraries as they passed information to generations through oral traditions, and they had quite a lot of information to impart to the young generation in matters related to SRHR.

SRHR issues were also linked to spiritual beliefs, with a focus on balance and harmony in all aspects of life. The spirit was deemed to be the guidance and true revelation of all matters that had something to do with the way a person lived, and much emphasis was given to the spirit.

However, in pre-colonial Zimbabwe, SRHR was addressed through a holistic approach that integrated many aspects including physical, spiritual, and communal aspects and the arrival of colonialism and western civilisation negatively influenced traditional practises and led to a modern healthcare systems.
In a nutshell it is also proper to note that there is recognition of traditional knowledge and practises in Zimbabwe and most if not all of them are now founding their way back into use.

Conclusion
While specific examples and detailed practices are limited in historical records, it is evident that indigenous communities in pre-colonial South Africa had their own approaches to sexual reproductive health. These approaches were likely deeply intertwined with cultural beliefs, traditional healing practices, and community support systems. The use of herbal medicine and the role of traditional healers were likely significant aspects of SRH management within these communities.

The Central Africa Story: Sexual Reproductive Health Before Colonial Times
Archaeological Evidence

1. Medicinal Plant Use: Archaeological evidence suggests that indigenous communities in Central Africa utilized various plants and herbs for medicinal purposes. While the specific use related to reproductive health may not be well-documented, it’s likely that some plants were used for managing reproductive health issues.
2. Oral Traditions and Cultural Practices
    Role of Traditional Healers:
   o Similar to other regions of Africa, traditional healers played a vital role in healthcare within Central African societies. These healers likely possessed of herbal remedies and rituals related to reproductive health.
3. Ceremonial Practices:
   o Central African cultures often had ceremonial practices related to fertility, childbirth, and marriage. These ceremonies may have included teachings and rituals aimed at promoting reproductive health and well-being.

Best Practices

1. Community Support Networks:
   o Central African societies placed significant emphasis on community support and collective well-being. Women likely received assistance and guidance from other members of the community during pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum care.
2. Cultural Knowledge Transmission:
   o Knowledge related to reproductive health was often passed down through oral traditions, storytelling, and practical experience. Elders and experienced community members played a crucial role in transmitting this knowledge to younger generations.

Conclusion
While detailed historical documentation may be limited, it is evident that pre-colonial Central African societies had their own approaches to sexual reproductive health. These approaches were deeply rooted in cultural traditions, community support networks, and the use of traditional healing practices. The reliance on oral traditions and the role of traditional healers were likely significant aspects of SRH management within these societies